Noise Pollution
 Rejected Assignment on Professional Ethics by Sharinawati Abdul Jalil The Pollution and Factors Contributing to it. (Unethical Behavior). Noise is an inescapable part of human life. While we may enjoy occasional moments of solitude, it is usually not long before we are confronted with noise of some sort. While some of this noise is ignored or "gotten used to," it is becoming increasingly more difficult to do so as our convenience-oriented Malaysian society races around in its singly-occupied cars, and commutes to our noisy offices in even noisier motorcycles. And when we arrive home at the end of the day we turn to our stereo systems and television sets to blast the day's worries out of our heads, seeking solace in the likes of Deep Purple who also claim to have had a "Long Day." Or maybe we burn off steam by walking or jogging, but we do so while wedging our heads between headphones whose shrieking guitars or thumping bass help us to keep in stride. At night, we can hear youngsters racing illegally on our streets using heavily modified exhaust system of their motorcycles, screaming out intolerable decibel of noise. At any rate, we are a noisy society, and to some extent we don't seem to mind it. Though researchers were investigating the dangers of noise pollution as early as the 1960's (e.g. McKennell, 1963), we still continue to largely ignore the damage we are causing ourselves, at least until it's time to go out and buy a hearing aid. And by then the damage is usually irreversible. Noise pollution derives from several sources, including street traffic, aircraft, railroads, industry, construction, consumer products, and other sources. In order to better understand noise pollution, it is first important to understand where it comes from. Upon doing so, one can then more carefully consider its impacts on humans and more effectively investigate methods for reducing noise and preventing its negative consequences. Of all the sources of noise pollution, street traffic is the most prevalent and perhaps damaging source of noise pollution. Indeed, Sharp and Donovan (1979) confirm that "more people are exposed to noise from motor vehicles than any other single source of noise". Though this claim is now 20 years old, the prevalence of street traffic has certainly grown since then, and thus the impacts of traffic noise are still a major factor in human society. Noise that is emitted by street traffic is generated by engines, exhaust systems, tires interacting with the road, and horns. Of these, tires contribute most predominantly to the noise emitted by automobiles, both in the effects on passengers within a vehicle and in the contribution to roadside noise. The other components of traffic noise are significant contributors nonetheless. Exhaust and engine noise, for example, have been implicated as even more prevalent than tire noise in some cases, especially in Japanese and European-made cars. Further, noise produced during acceleration can be as much as 20 dB greater than that produced at cruising speed. Besides cars, buses and trucks also contribute significantly to traffic noise. Though there are fewer of these vehicles in use than cars, the contribution of buses and trucks to noise pollution is significant nonetheless. For example, according to Burgliarello et al. (1976), "the noise from a heavy truck or bus is equivalent to that from 10 to 15 private cars together" . One reason for this is that trucks and buses generally use diesel engines, in which ignition occurs at a higher pressure than in petrol-burning automobile engine, resulting in an increased amount of airborne vibration emission. Additionally, diesel engines tend to be used at or near maximum power more often than passenger cars and light trucks, further contributing to their levels of noise emission. (Burgliarello et al.) Motorcycles are another source of traffic noise, and they present a unique situation. First, unlike cars, trucks, and buses, tire noise contributes rather insignificantly to the overall amount of noise produced by motorcycles (Sharp & Donovan, 1979). Thus, the type of engine, acceleration, and other issues that are relevant to the engine system rather than the tires become more important when considering motorcycles as a noise source. Second, unlike passengers in cars, trucks, and buses, the rider of a motorcycle is not shielded by an enclosed compartment from the noise produced by their vehicle. Third, motorcycles can be particularly noisy; whereas cars generally produce noise levels in the range of 67-75 dB, motorcycle noise generally ranges from 72-83 dB, but can reach levels as high as 120 dB immediately behind the cycle. (Burgliarello et al., 1976). In Malaysia, the density of motorcycles are much higher than any developed nations, thus the contributory factor of noise pollution by this kind of vehicle supercedes many other mode of transportation. Not to mention the number of youngsters riding on heavily modified exhausts which create deafening sounds which could possibly crack your eardrums. In summary, then, one would expect to find peaks in traffic noise accompanying the presence of trucks, buses, and motorcycles. But there are many other factors besides the type of vehicle that influence the amount of noise produced by street traffic, as well. Examples of these additional factors can be seen in traffic, road, environmental, weather, and building parameters. First, traffic noise is influenced by traffic parameters, which include speed, density, "fluidity," and driver behavior. Traffic speed and density, the first two of the traffic parameters, are both positively correlated with noise production. For example, noise levels increase by 3-5 dB when traffic speed is doubled in the presence of 50 or more vehicles per hour. Traffic fluidity, or the amount of stopping and starting versus continuous flow, tends to exert its effects in the level and duration of peak noise intensities. And of course driver behavior influences noise emission, in that how "hard" people drive their cars also influences peak noise intensities. Road parameters represent a second additional group of factors influencing traffic noise. For example, the propagation of traffic noise is significantly reduced in tunnels versus open roads. Other factors in this category include road surface (e.g. stone is particularly noisy), gradient (steeper hills cause vehicles to work harder and thus emit more noise), and width (narrow streets lined closely with buildings trap noise and increase its effects). Another group of factors affecting traffic noise includes environmental parameters, such as the distance and height from the road a person is located, the presence or absence of natural or artificial screens, and the amount of noise absorption due to the condition of the ground between a person and the road. Weather parameters include factors such as various precipitation conditions (e.g. rain or dry), which mostly exert their effects indirectly by affecting traffic speed, and wind direction and speed, which are generally more applicable in rural areas since urban areas have many wind blocks such as tall buildings. A final group of factors affecting traffic noise involve the design of buildings. Namely, people in buildings that are better insulated are influenced less than people in poorly insulated buildings. Other relevant factors include the number of windows in a building and how many of them are open. Noise has many effects on humans, including hearing loss, non-auditory physiological effects, sleep disruption, annoyance, communication interference, and other effects. Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Exposure to sufficiently intense noise for a long enough duration results in damage to the inner ear and thus decreases one's ability to hear. In addition to a general decrease in the ability to detect sounds, the quality and clarity of auditory perception can be affected, as well. While these effects are often temporary, it is not uncommon for some residual permanent damage to persist for the remainder of the affected person's life. (Miller, 1979a) Whether temporary or permanent, hearing loss due to noise exposure primarily affects the inner ear, especially when the noise is presented over a significant period of time. Non-Auditory Physiological Effects In addition to its effects on hearing, noise has also been implicated as having other physiological effects. Indeed, according to Ruback, Pandey, and Begum (1997), "individuals who complain about environmental stressors are probably also more likely to complain about other aspects of their life, including their health". Specifically, non-auditory physiological effects of noise pollution that have been identified thus far include cardiovascular, autonomic, and gastric effects. Further, it appears that noise can exert its non-auditory effects independent of hearing loss. For example, Peterson et al. (1981) effectively raised the blood pressure . The first category of non-auditory physiological effects includes effects on the cardiovascular system. In 1977, Knipschild and Oudshoorn indirectly demonstrated this effect by noting an increase in antihypertensive medication consumption in a village near an airport that correlated with an increase in aircraft traffic. A control village that was not near the airport did not demonstrate an increase in cardiovascular medication consumption during the same period. The cardiovascular effects of noise have been the most abundantly researched non-auditory noise effects. According to Abel (1990), "loud noise is suppose to cause consequent increase in blood pressure. This leads in turn to smooth muscle hypertrophy, narrower lumen in small vessels, and increased resistance to blood flow. The end result is hypertension". To investigate this effect, both laboratory and field studies have been conducted. Exposure to noise can lead to gastric changes, as well. For example, Bugliarello et al. (1976) describes a study in which exposure to 80 dB noise levels resulted in a reduction in stomach contraction strength. Additionally, Burns (1979) discuss the results of a study in which subjects who were unable to control their noise environment experienced increased gastrointestinal motility compared to subjects who could shut the noise off by pushing a switch. Thus, although research on this topic is somewhat sparse, it appears that noise can lead to changes in one's gastrointestinal system. And because gastric changes are related to ulcers, Bugliarello et al. (1976) and Bragdon (1972) both suggest that noise may be related to ulcer development, as well. Effects on Sleep It is common knowledge that noise can disturb sleep (that's why we use alarm clocks). It’s a common phenomenon in Malaysia that people living in heavy traffic area are frequently awaken by noise at least "occasionally," and since the volume of traffic has constantly increased substantially then, it is likely that even more people are affected now. Bugliarello et al. (1976) describe several factors that affect sleep disturbance: factors involving the stimulus itself (e.g. type of noise, repetition, duration, intensity, etc.), the stage of sleep at which the stimulus occurs, and individual variables (e.g. state of health, motivation to wake, etc.). First, sleep disturbance by noise is affected by characteristics of the noise itself. For example, stimulus intensity is related to sleep disturbance, with more intense stimuli awakening people more often. However, disturbance thresholds vary widely among people, with some people being disturbed by levels as low as 35 dB and others being able to sleep through 90 dB levels. And a person's threshold depends on the type of stimulus, as well. For example, it appears that most people can sleep only 40 dB of street traffic noise (Bugliarello et al., 1976). Another factor affecting sleep disturbance is the stage of sleep during which a noise occurs. In general, it requires greater intensity stimuli to awaken people in the deeper stages of sleep. Individual variables also affect noise's ability to awaken a person. For example, lower intensities of noise are generally required to awaken people as they grow progressively older. Thus, an elderly person is more likely to be awakened by a given stimulus than a young adult in a similar situation. Additionally, motivation to wake must also be considered, as must a person's state of health, since certain disorders (e.g. depression) are known to affect sleep behavior. Annoyance One of the most salient effects of noise on humans is annoyance, which Molino (1979) defines with the statement, "a noise is said to be annoying if an exposed individual or a group of individuals would reduce the noise, avoid, or leave the noisy area if possible" .Annoyance due to noise depends on many factors, including several parameters of the noise itself. For example, louder noises are generally more annoying than quieter noises , though two sounds with equal intensity (i.e. loudness) may still result in different levels of annoyance. Indeed, patterned sounds appear to be less annoying than sounds that are randomly produced . Also, noises that are higher in pitch are generally rated as more annoying than lower-frequency noise. And finally, annoyance depends on the regularity of the noise. That is, noises that remain constant in pitch and intensity are generally rated as less annoying than noises that change in pitch or intensity. Another factor affecting annoyance appears to be the source of the noise. For example, it appears that noise produced by street traffic is less annoying than equally-intense noise that is produced by aircraft, an effect that was observed by Hall and colleagues (1981), as well. As such, much of the research on noise-induced annoyance has focused on aircraft noise There are other factors that influence noise-induced annoyance, as well. For example, Miller (1979a) asserts that noise of a given intensity is more annoying during the night than during the day, an effect that was also observed by Gyr and Grandjean (1984). Additionally, the neighborhood that one is in is also important to consider. That is, for a given noise exposure, annoyance is greatest in rural areas, followed by suburban, urban, residential, commercial, and industrial areas in decreasing order of annoyance. And noise appears to be more annoying in the summer than in the winter (Miller, 1979a). Finally, it is important to consider the influence of individual characteristics on noise, especially attitude. According to Miller (1979a), "highly annoyed persons are likely to believe that those responsible for the noise are not concerned about those being exposed to the noise, and they are also likely to believe that the source of noise is not of great importance to the economic and social success of the community" (p. 137). Additionally, "highly annoyed persons are likely to have negative attitudes toward many kinds of noise; to be generally sensitive to irritation produced by noise; to believe that their neighbors share their annoyance; to say that they would be unwilling to accept further increases in noise levels; and to believe that noise is a health hazard" (pp. 137-138). Further, it does not appear that annoyance due to noise pollution exhibits habituation. That is, continued exposure to noise does not appear to decrease annoyance. Rather, it appears that in some cases continued exposure to noise actually increases annoyance (Abel, 1990; Borsky, 1970). In addition, it appears that the annoying effects of noise are cross-cultural. Indeed, Abel (1990) states that there is "high similarity of community reactions to changes in noise exposure level" and that the annoying effect of noise "does not appear to be significantly influenced by nationality".
Communication Interference Noise pollution can have a considerable effect on communication. According to Berglund and Hassmen (1996), "there can be no doubt that noise can mask speech" . And as Miller (1979a) points out, even when speech is accurately understood, background noise may result in "greater pains on the part of the talker and listener than otherwise would be needed" . Many factors contribute to the effect of noise on communication interference. For example, according to Berglund and Hassmen (1996), noise that has a similar frequency to speech will mask it better than noise at other frequencies, especially higher frequencies, since lower frequency noise is capable of an "upward spread" (p. 2994) that is rather effective at masking speech. Miller (1979a) discusses several other factors affecting noise-induced speech interference. For example, communication that involves a higher ratio of speech intensity to noise intensity is more likely to be understood. In addition, speech content is also important, since a person that is trying to convey personal information is less likely to raise his or her voice to compensate for background noise. As a result, personal information is less likely to be understood. This also relates to another influencing factor, culture, which governs how close two people can be to each other. Since two people who are close together have a higher speech to noise intensity ratio than two people who are farther apart, people in cultures that emphasize personal space are more likely to encounter communication difficulties in noisy situations. Another factor influencing communication interference is the age of the people involved. Specifically, because children have poorer articulation skills than adults, "their lack of vocabulary or different concepts of the rules of language may render speech unintelligible when some of the cues in the speech stream are lost" (Miller, 1979a, p. 125). Thus, noisy conditions are more likely to interfere with the speech of children than with that of adults. Additionally, the ability to understand partially masked or distorted speech appears to begin deteriorating at around the age of 30. Thus, "the older the listener, the lower the background noise must be for practical or satisfactory communication" (p. 125). Spatial factors also contribute to communication interference, in that noises that are produced in areas containing highly reverberant materials become less localized, resulting in greater interference with communication. Further, situational factors are also important in their influence on message predictability and on the availability of non-verbal cues. That is, predictable messages can often be understood despite highly noisy backgrounds, such as the snap count of an NFL quarterback in a noisy stadium, whereas less predictable messages are more poorly understood, such as speech about unexpected situations that firemen encounter during a fire. Though forms of non-verbal communication such as lip-reading or bodily gestures are often utilized to compensate for such noisy environments, these again are more efficient in conveying predictable information, and may not be very useful regarding unexpected events. Further, some situations preclude the use of such forms of communication, such as situations often encountered by firemen in which their visibility is limited due to smoke and as a result lip-reading and gesturing are useless. (Miller, 1979a) Noise can obviously be very hazardous, in that it can preclude the conveyance of vital life-saving information. However, it is the more benign, everyday conversation that is more often what is disrupted by noise. This is not to say, though, that such disruption is not damaging. On the contrary, everyday conversation disruptions can lead to increased annoyance and anxiety, and as result may indirectly contribute to physiological complications such as the non-auditory physiological effects discussed previously. Other Effects There are many other effects of noise other than those discussed thus far, and some of these innumerable effects involve cognitive performance, occupational performance, psychological functioning, effects on prosocial behavior, and effects on aggression.
Cycling lanes Malaysia is developing rapidly as we can see road constructions are carried out on almost every corner of our country. This will accommodate more traffic in the hope that the flow of the traffic will be smoother. Unfortunately, the smoother and wider roads mean faster and noisier vehicles. It’s a common phenomenon that each and every one of us love to ride bicycles when we were young. It’s a healthy habit and its pollution free. School going children are risking their lives everywhere, negotiating with the traffic cycling their way to and from school. What are we doing to make the cyclists safer and enjoyable to be on the road. Compared to the amount of money spent on highways and dual carriageways, it is a small budget to provide cycling lanes on at least roads commonly used by school children. Road safety campaigns on television keeps on highlighting how dangerous it is for the children to be on the road to school, but are we doing enough to make it safer and more conducive for them? Cycling lanes not only safe and conducive for the cyclists, it provides parents peace of mind knowing that their children don’t have to hassle with motorized vehicles to and from school. It also motivates more cyclists so that lesser parents will be shuttling their children to and from school. This will significantly reduce the number of traffic especially during peak hours that causes congestion on every road leading to most schools in Malaysia especially the urban area. Lesser traffic means direct correlation to the contributory factor of noise and air pollution. When cycling becomes safer on our roads, it will influence more people to take up this healthy living habit as there are many cyclists out there who still enjoy cycling but not daring enough to risk their lives on our roads. Carpool How often do you see a car with a single rider? At random, we could see seven out of ten cars on the roads are being driven just by the driver. Carpooling has always been a good solution but it never actually materializes here in Malaysia. A more stringent rule on gazette congested roads for at least four passengers occupancy might be a more reasonable alternative as most Malaysians are very car dependant. Organizations and companies can assist the campaign by making car pooling a mandatory practice by their workers. This will not only reduce the number of cars on the road but significantly decrease the lots provided for parking which can be converted into more beneficial recreational or business purposes. Stricter enforcement on modified vehicles Malaysians are well-known for vehicle modifications. Just look around us, there are so many car accessories outlets everywhere. Many people will drive their newly delivered cars straight to the accessories shops. Almost every factory fitted parts and accessories are upgradeable and this does not always mean to a more superior parts. Wheels, tires, suspensions, emissions and many more are the cause of modifications. Wider, low-profile tires generate louder noise. More than often, emission systems are modified so that the vehicles are noisier than those fitted with the standard equipments. There are laws against it but we can all see the percentage of the modified vehicles on our roads. Stricter enforcements and heavier penalties might deter the drivers from making illegal modifications to the vehicles. The operation to curb these errant motorists should be carried out continuously and not just seasonal as it is now. The authority must take the appropriate action on sights and not just during some operations. Heavier penalties can be considered as an option that will reduce this “unhealthy hobbies”. More efficient public transport Most successful cities that have brought down the traffic level offer an efficient public transportation. The system will work if the fares are reasonable and adequate feeder transportation to the main network is available. A single fare system for all modes of transportation will make the commuter more at ease with the public transport. This will come in handy when it comes to issuing seasonal passes. What we have now are multiple fare system which deter the commuter to some extend to use public transport.
Loud music at public places and some public transport
Some supermarkets or shops play loud music in order to get customers’ attention. The music was played so loud that it is very annoying as you can’t even hear yourself shouting. It is far from being pleasant and somewhat irritating. The same applies to insensitive express bus drivers who blast the stereo in the bus according to their whim and fancies. Maybe there should be a law against making loud noise in public places. Noise was never considered as a major pollution here in Malaysia but the level of pollution it creates has reached a worrying level.
Construction
An indicator for economic progress can be seen by endless construction of buildings, bridges, flyovers, roads and many more. These are good in the sense that it will eventually benefit most of us. How many of us can tolerate endless thumps and knocks while the piling of the foundation are taking place. These are even worse if the construction is taking place near the schools or even inside the school yards. It is fully understood that these activities are unavoidable but a limitation on when to make these noise will be highly appreciated. Maybe these could be carried out after school hours and limited to a certain period of time instead of carrying it out at will. Students in some schools have to tolerate the noise for the whole year for major construction inside the school yards. Students and staff in those schools will to some extent undergone certain negative effects and worst still if there are students facing the examination during that period.
Noise is produced by almost everything we humans do. It makes sense, then, that we would get used to it. But unfortunately this attitude also leads us to accept excessive and damaging amounts of noise. Exposure to noise no louder than people shouting for eight hours a day, five days a week can lead to substantial hearing loss in a matter of a few years, yet we continue to work and allow others to work amidst heavy machinery, impact tools, and screaming exhausts of cars and motorcycles . And we live along approach paths to the major airports of the world. We accept hearing loss as a part of the normal aging process, even though in many cases it doesn't have to be. Many of the problems discussed here are the result of ignorance. Ignorance may be bliss, but it is a lonely, frustrating bliss when you can't hear a word spoken to you unless it's shouted. Educating oneself may not guarantee a lifetime of good hearing, but it certainly gives a person better odds. Malaysians have to be educated about the danger of noise pollution that is creeping into our daily lives. And the people around them, too. A parent educated in safe auditory practices has kids who will grow up in a safe environment and who will learn safe auditory practices themselves. And maybe with enough educated parents, teachers, co-workers, and policy-makers our children and our children's children won't have to grow up in an annoying world, a world where it is difficult to communicate, a world where noise-induced hearing loss is accepted as part of the normal aging process. The Education might covers some of these broad objectives :
We do not seek to create an absolutely quiet world. However, we want to see a world where quiet is a normal part of life and where it is possible to listen to the sounds of nature without the constant intrusion of machine noise and artificial stimuli. We want our homes to be havens from unwanted noise, and we ask that the soundscape of our public spaces -- which is common property, like the air we breathe -- be respected. We insist on our right to listen, or not listen, to music and other program audio according to our own tastes and moods, without having other people's choices forced on us wherever we go. And we want to be able to attend movies, listen to speeches, and even go dancing without being deafened by unreasonably loud amplification. Here are some specific goals to be considered:
If our society is better educated about the alarming danger of noise pollution, we hope Malaysia will be a “quieter” place to live. AMIN………. |